Clean-In-Place (CIP) wastewater management using nanofiltration (NF)-forward osmosis (FO)-direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD): Effects of draw salt.

A substantial amount of water is being used during Clean-in-Place (CIP) operation, and is transformed into wastewater that can cause eutrophication to the nearby ecosystem. The present study proposed the Nanofiltration (NF) - Forward Osmosis (FO) - Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD) to recover the cleaning agents and reclaim freshwater from the model CIP wastewater. NF steps were suggested as prefiltration steps to remove organic compounds from the CIP wastewater. NF steps reduced the lactose and protein contents by 100 % and 95.6 %, respectively. The permeates from NF steps were further managed by the integrated FO-DCMD system. Several draw salts such as NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, and CaCl2 were compared to investigate the influence on FO and DCMD performance. It was found that monovalent salts (NaCl and KCl) outperformed the divalent salts (MgCl2 and CaCl2) in terms of water flux for both FO and DCMD. This can be attributed to the lower viscosity and higher mass transfer coefficient. In addition, the replenishment costs of each salt were evaluated since salts loss occurred during FO and DCMD operation. The cost evaluation revealed that NaCl is most the cheapest salts per reclaimed water. All of this observation indicates that NaCl is preferred in terms of water flux and replenishment cost. The NF permeate kept concentrated using the integrated FO-DCMD or single FO with 2 M of NaCl. Compared to a single FO that showed a consistent decline in draw solution concentration, FO-DCMD could maintain the concentration of the draw solution. Despite the constant concentration, flux decline of FO was observed due to fouling formation caused by the high-temperature operation. However, the FO-DCMD could accomplish the recovery of pure water. Finally, the cleaning agents recovered by the NF-FO-DCMD showed the cleaning efficacy comparable to the fresh NaOH. These results suggest the potential of the proposed system to manage the CIP wastewater.

Evaluation of air impingement for dry-cleaning nonfat dry milk residues on a stainless-steel surface.

The use of air jet impingement to remove residues from surfaces in food manufacturing operations offers an alternative to the use of water and liquid cleaning agents. During this investigation, air impingement was used to remove nonfat dry milk (NFDM) residues from a stainless-steel surface. The influence of the water activity (aw ) of the residue, the time after the residue reached an equilibrium water activity, and the thickness of residue at the time of removal from the surface have been investigated. All three factors had a significant effect on the time for removal. An increase in the water activity, the time at equilibrium, the sample thickness, or a combination of all three resulted in an increase in the time required to remove the deposits. Visible changes in the structure of deposits were observed as NFDM samples equilibrated to water activities above 0.43. NFDM residues with water activities less than 0.33 were removed within 1 s of using air impingement regardless of wall shear stress. When the water activities were greater than 0.50, the thickness of deposit was greater than 1 mm, and the time after reaching an equilibrium water activity was over 7 days, more than 5 min of air impingement with wall shear stress over 9.48 Pa was required to remove the residue. The results from these experiments indicated that air impingement has the potential to provide effective cleaning in manufacturing facilities for low-moisture foods. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The introduction of water in low-moisture food environments is often undesirable due to the possibility of pathogenic microorganism growth. The normal cleaning operations in the food industry use water as a cleaning agent. This study evaluates the application of air impingement technology as a dry-cleaning method.

A review of food safety in low-moisture foods with current and potential dry-cleaning methods.

Food is one of the basic needs of human life. With the increasing population, the production and supply of safe and quality foods are critical. Foods can be classified into different categories including low moisture, intermediate moisture, and high moisture content. Historically, low-moisture foods have been considered safe for human consumption due to the limited amount of moisture for microbial activity. Recalls of these foods due to pathogens such as Salmonella and undeclared allergens have brought attention to the need for improved cleaning and sanitization in dry food manufacturing facilities. In the food industry, cleaning and sanitation activities are the most efficient methods to prevent microbial contamination; however, water is most often required to deliver cleaning and sanitation agents. A well-written and properly implemented sanitation standard operating procedure can take care of microbial and allergen cross-contamination. Nevertheless, there are unique challenges to cleaning and sanitation processes for low-moisture food manufacturing facilities. The introduction of moisture into a low-moisture food environment increases the likelihood of cross-contamination by microbial pathogens. Hence, the use of water during cleaning and sanitation of dry food manufacturing facilities should be limited. However, much less research has been done on these dry methods compared to wet sanitation methods. This review discusses recent foodborne outbreaks and recalls associated with low-moisture foods the accepted methods for cleaning and sanitation in dry food manufacturing facilities and the limitations of these methods. The potential for air impingement as a dry-cleaning method is also detailed.

Recovery of cleaning agents from Clean-In-Place (CIP) wastewater using nanofiltration (NF) and direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD).

Increasing concerns about freshwater sources necessitate the management of wastewater, such as the wastewater generated from Clean-in-Place (CIP) operations. In this investigation, a membrane system composed of nanofiltration (NF) and direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) was proposed to manage model dairy CIP wastewater that contained NaOH as an alkaline cleaning agent. During the NF step, prefiltration by a 4 kDa membrane or a 4 kDa membrane followed by a 200 Da membrane (4 kDa/200 Da) was used to remove the whey protein and lactose. With these two membranes in series of NF, the protein concentration was reduced by 92.4% and the lactose content was reduced to a non-detectable level when compared to the model CIP wastewater. Before concentrating the permeates from NF steps, three DCMD membranes (FR, Solupor, and ST) with different characteristics were evaluated to manage the NF permeates from 4 kDa or 200 Da NF. An increase in the feed temperature from 40 °C to 60 °C resulted in an increase in the water flux during DCMD operation, except for FR. In addition, it was found that ST generated the highest water flux when compared to the other membranes. Using ST and a feed temperature of 60 °C, the permeates from 4 kDa or 4 kDa/200 Da were continuously concentrated for 7 h with DCMD. During this concentration, there was no significant decline in flux. The cleaning effectiveness of the cleaning agent (NaOH) recovered by NF and DCMD was compared with a fresh cleaning solution using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D). It was found that the cleaning agents recovered by 4 kDa/200 Da NF presented a statistically identical cleaning rate compared to fresh NaOH. This research highlights the potential of NF and DCMD to regenerate alkaline cleaning agents, while reclaiming water from dairy CIP wastewater.

Effect of temperature, wall shear stress, and NaOH concentration on cleaning effectiveness.

The objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of various operational parameters and their interaction on cleaning rate of NaOH. The parameters include wall shear stress, temperatures, and NaOH concentrations of cleaning fluid. The higher cleaning effectiveness for proteinaceous deposits was achieved at higher wall shear stress. The wall shear stress of 2.42 Pa removed over 90% of foulant after 10 min of operation, which was significantly higher than the removal of lower wall shear stress (0.84 and 0.39 Pa). Similarly, the cleaning rate increased with increase in temperature and concentration of cleaning solution. The use of cleaning solution (0.05% NaOH) at 65°C provided significantly higher cleaning rate than 25°C. A cleaning solution concentration of 0.5% NaOH provided significantly higher removal of foulant than 0% or 0.05% concentrations. However, analysis on the interaction between temperature and the wall shear stress suggested that the temperature above 45°C and wall shear stress above 0.65 Pa did not provide significant improvement in cleaning efficacy. When a cleaning solution temperature was maintained at 45°C, higher wall shear stress provided more rapid removal of the foulant when the cleaning agent concentration was 0.05% or 0.5%. In water rinse conducted without chemical agents, no much improvements in foulant removal were observed with increase in wall shear stress. The change of activation energy (Ea ) indicates that water rinse was sensitive to temperature change at higher wall shear stress. However, cleaning with cleaning agents was less sensitive to temperature variation compared to the water rinse. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Considering the intense use of water and chemical compounds during cleaning operation, finding operating condition to ensure acceptable cleanness with minimized input is desired. Temperature, cleaning agent concentration, and wall shear stress are the major components to influence the cleaning efficacy. The result of the study demonstrates the potential for optimization of in-place cleaning by appropriate adjustments of the CIP operating parameters.

Monitoring and Characterization of Milk Fouling on Stainless Steel Using a High-Pressure High-Temperature Quartz Crystal Microbalance with Dissipation.

Fouling at interfaces deteriorates the efficiency and hygiene of processes within numerous industrial sectors, including the oil and gas, biomedical device, and food industries. In the food industry, the fouling of a complex food matrix to a heated stainless steel surface reduces production efficiency by increasing heating resistance, pumping requirements, and the frequency of cleaning operations. In this work, quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) was used to study the interface formed by the fouling of milk on a stainless steel surface at different flow rates and protein concentrations at high temperatures (135 °C). Subsequently, the QCM-D response was recorded during the cleaning of the foulant. Two phases of fouling were identified. During phase-1, the fouling rate was dependent on the flow rate, while the fouling rate during phase-2 was dependent on the flow rate and protein concentration. During cleaning, foulants deposited at the higher flow rate swelled more than those deposited at the lower flow rate. The composition of the fouling deposits consisted of both protein and mineral species. Two crystalline phases of calcium phosphate, ß-tricalcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite, were identified at both flow rates. Stratification in topography was observed across the surface of the QCM-D sensor with a brittle and cracked structure for deposits formed at 0.2 mL/min and a smooth and close-packed structure for deposits formed at 0.1 mL/min. These stratifications in the composition and topography were correlated to differences in the reaction time and flow dynamics at different flow rates. This high-temperature application of QCM-D to complex food systems illuminates the initial interaction between proteins and minerals and a stainless steel surface, which might otherwise be undetectable in low-temperature applications of QCM-D or at larger bench and industrial scales. The methods and results presented here have implications for optimizing processing scenarios that limit fouling formation while also enhancing removal during cleaning.

Molecular Understanding of Fouling Induction and Removal: Effect of the Interface Temperature on Milk Deposits.

Molecular details concerning the induction phase of milk fouling on stainless steel at an elevated temperature range were established to better understand the effect of temperature on surface fouling during pasteurization. The liquid-solid interface that replicates an industrial heat exchanger (≤75°C), including four stages (preheating, heating, holding, and cooling), was investigated using both a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM-D) and a customized flow cell. We found that the milk fouling induction process is rate-limited by the synergistic effects of bulk reactions, mass transfer, and surface reactions, all of which are controlled by both liquid and surface temperatures. Surface milk foulant becomes more rigid and compact as it builds up. The presence of protein aggregates in the bulk fluid leads to a fast formation of surface deposit with a reduced Young's modulus. Foulant adhesion and cohesion strength was enhanced as both interfacial temperature and processing time increased, while removal force increased with an increasing deposit thickness. During cleaning, caustic swelling and removal showed semilinear correlations with surface temperature (TS), where higher TS reduced swelling and enhanced removal. Our findings evidence that adsorption kinetics, characteristics of the foulant, and the subsequent removal mechanism are greatly dependent on the temperature profile, of which the surface temperature is the most critical one.

Metabolomic Markers of Storage Temperature and Time in Pasteurized Milk.

The current date labeling system for pasteurized milk is based on the predicted growth of spoilage microorganisms, but inherent inaccuracies and the inability to account for environmental factors (e.g., temperature fluctuations) contribute to household and retail food waste. Improved shelf-life estimation can be achieved by monitoring milk quality in real-time. In this study, we identify and quantify metabolites changing over storage temperature and time, the main factors affecting milk stability. Pasteurized 2% fat milk was stored at 4, 10, 15, and 20 °C. Metabolite change was analyzed using untargeted and targeted nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) metabolomics approaches. Several metabolites correlated significantly to storage time and temperature. Citric acid decreased linearly over time at a temperature-dependent rate. Ethanol, formic acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid increased non-linearly after an initial period of minimal increase. Butyric acid exhibited strong inverse temperature dependencies. This study provides the first analysis of the effect of time and temperature on the concentration of key metabolites during milk storage. Candidate molecules for shelf-life monitoring have been identified, and the results improve our understanding of molecular changes during milk storage. These results will inform the development of real-time shelf-life indicators for milk, helping to reduce milk waste.

Comparison of flow characteristics in a bench-scale system with commercial-scale pipelines: Use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD).

The challenges for scale-up are often encountered in cleaning operations during the interpretation of data from clean-in-place (CIP) research. The objective of this investigation was to design and characterize flow characteristics in a bench-scale system in a manner that evaluates scale-up to a commercial-scale CIP operation. A bench-scale temperature-controlled vessel was designed for evaluation of in-place cleaning, and for development of scale-up parameters. The wall shear stress was selected as the parameter for the comparison, as it is the significant parameter associated with deposit removal. Using the traditional prediction models, the wall shear stress of bench-scale ranged 0.015 to 4.99 Pa with impeller speeds from 50 to 900 rpm. For the commercial-scale with 0.022 m of inside diameter, prediction ranged from 1.43 to 7.90 Pa with the mean fluid velocity from 0.72 to 1.67 m/s. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was used to predict wall shear stress on the surfaces within the bench-scale and commercial-scale systems. The predicted wall shear stress values ranged from 0.016 to 2.42 Pa for surfaces within the bench-scale system, and from 1.33 to 7.20 Pa for the commercial-scale system. The differences between two calculation methods are attributed to the averaging the magnitude over the whole area and the overestimation of friction coefficients employed in the traditional prediction. The results confirm that CFD provided more reliable wall shear stress estimates for surfaces of interest. The wall shear stress estimates for a bench-scale compare favorably to estimates for a commercial-scale pie section in a CIP system. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The current investigation demonstrates that the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation provides accurate estimates for the scale-up parameters. Both academic and industrial researchers will benefit from the proposed methodologies to compare the flow properties of the bench-scale and commercial-scale CIP operation that facilitate the practical implementation of the systems.

All Treatment Parameters Affect Environmental Surface Sanitation Efficacy, but Their Relative Importance Depends on the Microbial Target.

Environmental sanitation in food manufacturing plants promotes food safety and product microbial quality. However, the development of experimental models remains a challenge due to the complex nature of commercial cleaning processes, which include spraying water and sanitizer on equipment and structural surfaces within manufacturing space. Although simple in execution, the physical driving forces are difficult to simulate in a controlled laboratory environment. Here, we present a bench-scale bioreactor system which mimics the flow conditions in environmental sanitation programs. We applied computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations to obtain fluid flow parameters that better approximate and predict industrial outcomes. According to the CFD model, the local wall shear stress achieved on the target surface ranged from 0.015 to 5.00 Pa. Sanitation efficacy on six types of environmental surface materials (hydrophobicity, 57.59 to 88.61°; roughness, 2.2 to 11.9 µm) against two different microbial targets, the bacterial pathogen Listeria monocytogenes and Exophiala species spoilage fungi, were evaluated using the bench-scale bioreactor system. The relative reduction ranged from 0.0 to 0.82 for Exophiala spp., which corresponded to a 0.0 to 2.21 log CFU/coupon reduction, and the relative reduction ranged from 0.0 to 0.93 in L. monocytogenes which corresponded to a 0.0 to 6.19 log CFU/coupon reduction. Although most treatment parameters were considered statistically significant against either L. monocytogenes or Exophiala spp., contact time was ranked as the most important predictor for L. monocytogenes reduction. Shear stress contributed the most to Exophiala spp. removal on stainless steel and Buna-N rubber, while contact time was the most important factor on HDPE (high-density polyethylene), cement, and epoxy.IMPORTANCE Commercial food manufacturers commonly employ a single sanitation program that addresses both bacterial pathogen and fungal spoilage microbiota, despite the fact that the two microbial targets respond differently to various environmental sanitation conditions. Comparison of outcome-based clusters of treatment combinations may facilitate the development of compensatory sanitation regimes where longer contact time or greater force are applied so that lower sanitizer concentrations can be used. Determination of microbiological outcomes related to sanitation program efficacy against a panel of treatment conditions allows food processors to balance tradeoffs between quality and safety with cost and waste stream management, as appropriate for their facility.

Assessment of chicken breast meat quality after freeze/thaw abuse using magnetic resonance imaging techniques.

BACKGROUND: Freezing/thawing meat can result in quality losses as a result of the formation, melting and reformation of ice. These changes in water state can result in alterations in texture, water holding and other key quality attributes. It was hypothesized that magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) could quantify changes in mobility and localization of water as a function of freezing/thawing, which could be correlated with quality measurements. RESULTS: Drip loss increased significantly for unbrined samples by over 100% after each freeze/thaw cycle (1.5% to 3.3% to 5.3% drip loss). Brine uptake decreased 50% after 2 cycles (from 53% to 28% mass uptake). Drip loss for brined samples increased after 2 cycles; other attributes were not significantly affected. MRI showed brined samples had less change in both proton density and T2 distributions. High-field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging showed greater change in T2 distributions. CONCLUSION: As freeze/thaw damage increased, meat quality was reduced in both brined and unbrined chicken breasts, with more prominent changes in unbrined meat. These decreases in quality correlated with changes, albeit small, in water mobility and localization as measured by MRI. High-field NMR micro-imaging showed more dramatic changes in T2 distributions in unbrined samples. These MRI techniques are shown to be useful in the assessment of meat quality after freeze/thaw abuse. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Prediction of Liquid Specific Heat Capacity of Food Lipids.

Specific heat capacity (cp ) is a temperature dependent physical property of foods. Lipid-being a macromolecular component of food-provides some fraction of the food's overall heat capacity. Fats/oils are complex chemicals that are generally defined by carbon length and degree of unsaturation. The objective of this investigation was to use advanced specific heat capacity measurement to determine the effect of fatty acid chemical structure on specific heat capacity of food lipids. In this investigation, the specific heat capacity of a series of triacylglycerols were measured to quantify the influence of fatty acid composition on specific heat capacity based on two parameters; the -average carbon number (C) and the average number of double bonds (U). A prediction model for specific heat capacity of food lipids as a function of C, U and temperature (T) has been developed. A multiple linear regression to the three-parameter model (R2 = 0.87) provided a good fit to the experimental data. The prediction model was evaluated by comparison with previously published specific heat capacity values of vegetable oils. It was found that the model provided a 0.53% error, while three other models from the literature predicted cp values with 0.85% to 1.83% average relative deviation from experimental data. The outcomes from this research confirm that the thermophysical properties of fat present in foods are directly related to the physical chemical properties. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The specific heat capacity of food products is widely used in process design. Improvements of current models to predict specific heat capacity of food products will assist in the development of efficient processes and in the control of food quality and safety. Furthermore, the understanding of how changes in chemical structure of macromolecular components of foods effect thermophysical properties may begin to allude to models that are not just empirical, but represent portions of the differences in chemistry.

Reverse Stability Kinetics of Meat Pigment Oxidation in Aqueous Extract from Fresh Beef.

The use of kinetic models is an evolving approach to describing quality changes in foods during processes, including storage. Previous studies indicate that the oxidation rate of myoglobin is accelerated under frozen storage conditions, a phenomenon termed reverse stability. The goal of this study was to develop a model for meat pigment oxidation to incorporate the phenomenon of reverse stability. In this investigation, the model system was an aqueous extract from beef which was stored under a range of temperatures, both unfrozen and frozen. The kinetic analysis showed that in unfrozen solutions, the temperature dependence of oxidation rate followed Arrhenius kinetics. However, under in frozen solutions the rate of oxidation increased with decreasing temperature until reaching a local maximum around -20 °C. The addition of NaCl to the model system increased oxidation rates at all temperatures, even above the initial freezing temperature. This observation suggests that this reaction is dependent on the ionic strength of the solution as well as temperature. The mechanism of this deviant kinetic behavior is not fully understood, but this study shows that the interplay of temperature and composition on the rate of oxidation of meat pigments is complicated and may involve multiple mechanisms. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: A better understanding of the kinetics of quality loss in a meat system allows for a re-examination of the current recommendations for frozen storage. The deviant kinetic behavior observed in this study indicates that the relationship between quality loss and temperature in a frozen food is not as simple as once thought. Product-specific recommendations could be implemented in the future that would allow for a decrease in energy consumption without a significant loss of quality.

Effect of Freezing Rate and Microwave Thawing on Texture and Microstructural Properties of Potato (Solanum tuberosum).

Food freezing is a preservation process that works by lowering temperature while simultaneously decreasing water activity. It is accepted that although freezing preserves foods, it generally has a negative effect on textural quality. This research investigated the texture response of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) as a function of time to freeze (defined as the time for the center temperature to reach -20 °C) and thawing process. Potatoes slices (6 mm) were blanched then frozen in an ethanol/carbon dioxide bath, a pilot scale high velocity air freezer (HVAF) and a still air freezer to achieve various times to freeze. Slices were stabilized at -20 °C and thawed by 2 methods; room temperature air and microwave. Afterwards, samples were allowed to come to room temperature prior to texture profile analysis (TPA). Results indicate a maximum texture loss of the potato was reached at a time to freeze of approximately 8 min (corresponding to the HVAF). The texture difference between room temperature and microwave thawing methods was not shown to be significant (P = 0.05). SEM images showed the cellular structure of the potato in a HVAF to be similar to that of the still air freezer, validating that the matrix was maximally damaged in both conditions. This work created a continuous quality loss model for the potato as a function of time to freeze and showed no textural benefit to high velocity over still air freezing.

Effect of solvent addition sequence on lycopene extraction efficiency from membrane neutralized caustic peeled tomato waste.

Lycopene is a high value nutraceutical and its isolation from waste streams is often desirable to maximize profits. This research investigated solvent addition order and composition on lycopene extraction efficiency from a commercial tomato waste stream (pH 12.5, solids ∼5%) that was neutralized using membrane filtration. Constant volume dilution (CVD) was used to desalinate the caustic salt to neutralize the waste. Acetone, ethanol and hexane were used as direct or blended additions. Extraction efficiency was defined as the amount of lycopene extracted divided by the total lycopene in the sample. The CVD operation reduced the active alkali of the waste from 0.66 to <0.01M and the moisture content of the pulp increased from 93% to 97% (wet basis), showing the removal of caustic salts from the waste. Extraction efficiency varied from 32.5% to 94.5%. This study demonstrates a lab scale feasibility to extract lycopene efficiently from tomato processing byproducts.

Effectiveness of Rinse Water during In-Place Cleaning of Stainless Steel Pipe Lines.

UNLABELLED: The 1st step of any Clean-In-Place (CIP) operation is a prerinse with water. The purpose of this step is to remove the bulk of food material remaining in the processing lines after production period has ended. It is known that this prerinse step can be a very water intensive process. The objective of this investigation was to measure the influence of CIP parameters (flow characteristics, water temperature, and contact time) on the effectiveness of prerinse water in removing dairy-based deposits from stainless steel pipe surfaces and to compare the rinse effectiveness of unused to reused rinse water. A pilot-scale CIP system was operated to rinse 304 stainless steel pipe sections of 3 different pipe diameters. The velocity of the rinse water was varied from 0.72 to 2.26 m/s. The rinse water temperatures were 22 °C, 45 °C, and 67 °C. The contact times between rinse water and deposited film were 20 and 60 s. Rinse effectiveness was expressed as the ratio of the amount of protein residue removed from the pipe surface during rinsing, as compared to the magnitude of the initial protein deposit. The rinse effectiveness varied from 73.1% to 94.9% for the range of the CIP parameters investigated. High velocities of rinse water provided a higher level of rinse effectiveness. Increasing the rinse water temperature from 23 °C to 45 °C improved rinse effectiveness significantly (P < 0.05). This impact was not significant when the water temperature was increased from 45 °C to 67 °C and at higher rinse water velocities. Similarly, longer contact time provided less improvement in rinse effectiveness at higher temperatures and velocities as compared to lower temperatures and velocities. There were no significant differences in rinse effectiveness when comparing reused and unused water (normal tap water) within the range of velocities evaluated. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The rinse steps are important components of the CIP operation and have direct impact on the amounts of water and energy used for the entire processing operation. The efficiency of rinse water can be improved significantly by the selection of appropriate combinations of operating parameters. For example, higher velocities of rinse water (2.26 m/s) provide significant improvements on rinse effectiveness when compared to current commercial practice (1.52 m/s). The careful selection of rinse water temperature and velocity can result in overall reductions in water and energy used for cleaning operations. The reuse of water for a 2nd or 3rd pass provides additional opportunities for reducing water requirements without influencing effectiveness.

Feeding the World Today and Tomorrow: The Importance of Food Science and Technology: An IFT Scientific Review.

by Philip E. Nelson, 2007 World Food Prize Laureate; Professor Emeritus, Food Science Dept., Purdue Univ. Just as society has evolved over time, our food system has also evolved over centuries into a global system of immense size and complexity. The commitment of food science and technology professionals to advancing the science of food, ensuring a safe and abundant food supply, and contributing to healthier people everywhere is integral to that evolution. Food scientists and technologists are versatile, interdisciplinary, and collaborative practitioners in a profession at the crossroads of scientific and technological developments. As the food system has drastically changed, from one centered around family food production on individual farms and home food preservation to the modern system of today, most people are not connected to their food nor are they familiar with agricultural production and food manufacturing designed for better food safety and quality. The Institute of Food Technologists-a nonprofit scientific society of individual members engaged in food science, food technology, and related professions in industry, academia, and government-has the mission to advance the science of food and the long-range vision to ensure a safe and abundant food supply contributing to healthier people everywhere. IFT convened a task force and called on contributing authors to develop this scientific review to inform the general public about the importance and benefits of food science and technology in IFT's efforts to feed a growing world. The main objective of this review is to serve as a foundational resource for public outreach and education and to address misperceptions and misinformation about processed foods. The intended audience includes those who desire to know more about the application of science and technology to meet society's food needs and those involved in public education and outreach. It is IFT's hope that the reader will gain a better understanding of the goals or purposes for various applications of science and technology in the food system, and an appreciation for the complexity of the modern food supply. Abstract: This Institute of Food Technologists scientific review describes the scientific and technological achievements that made possible the modern production-to-consumption food system capable of feeding nearly 7 billion people, and it also discusses the promising potential of ongoing technological advancements to enhance the food supply even further and to increase the health and wellness of the growing global population. This review begins with a historical perspective that summarizes the parallel developments of agriculture and food technology, from the beginnings of modern society to the present. A section on food manufacturing explains why food is processed and details various food processing methods that ensure food safety and preserve the quality of products. A section about potential solutions to future challenges briefly discusses ways in which scientists, the food industry, and policy makers are striving to improve the food supply for a healthier population and feed the future. Applications of science and technology within the food system have allowed production of foods in adequate quantities to meet the needs of society, as it has evolved. Today, our production-to-consumption food system is complex, and our food is largely safe, tasty, nutritious, abundant, diverse, convenient, and less costly and more readily accessible than ever before. Scientific and technological advancements must be accelerated and applied in developed and developing nations alike, if we are to feed a growing world population.

Use of average molecular weights for product categories to predict freezing characteristics of foods.

In the design of food freezing process, food property parameters, initial freezing temperature (T(Fi)), and frozen water fraction (X(I)) are required. The predictive approaches of these 2 parameters have been developed based on mass fractions and molecular weights of specific food components such as proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, and acids/bases. In this study, the molecular weights of the key mineral and acid/base components were successfully represented using average molecular weights (M) and 4 T(Fi) and X(I) calculation approaches were proposed. Based on an analysis of 212 food products, the absolute differences (AD) between the experimental and predicted T(Fi) values for the 4 approaches were small. The prediction for the food model category was excellent with average AD values as low as +/- 0.03 degrees C. For the other food categories, the prediction efficiency was impressive with values between +/- 0.22 and +/- 0.38 degrees C. The predicted relationship between temperature and X(I) for all analyzed food products provided close agreements with experimental data.